Parasocial relationships are unrequited relationships with persons or characters that the admirer is unable to meet. These attachments are important to explore with a client in their therapeutic process, since there are many reasons why the client developed this relationship. This thesis is a literature review that examined academic and scholarly journals, as well as blogs, articles and websites created by people in fandoms of different medias. The topics that are explored in the literature review are: how parasocial relationships are developed, how parasocial relationships influence the creators’ art making, and how to integrate the client’s parasocial relationships into the therapeutic setting. Areas for further research is presented with parasocial relationships in mind, as many clients have this type of attachment to fictional characters. The glossary in Appendix A defines terms that may be used by clients with different parasocial relationships. Parasocial relationships are part of many different clients’ lives and can be an important topic to include in the therapeutic relationship.
There are many different reasons why a client would develop parasocial relationship with a fictional character. For example, a client might be going through a similar experience as a character. Another way is that the character could have traits they admire, such as bravery or strength. Since it is not uncommon for people to have at least one fictional character in a piece of media that they feel a connection to, it could be an important topic for expressive arts therapists to explore these relationships with their clients. In the following pages of this thesis, there is a literature review on the research that is already done on parasocial relationships.
The topics of that are included are: how these relationships are developed, the existing art that is created inspired by a person’s parasocial relationships, and finally how to integrate these relationships in the therapeutic process for clients. Due to the nature of the subject, in addition to traditional academic sources, additional resources have been examined, such as blog posts, articles, and websites created by people that have parasocial relationships to characters. Appendix A contains a glossary of terms that are frequently used on different social media sites, conventions, and in fandoms. These terms might be used by clients that hold these types of relationships, especially with younger clients that frequent these types of websites and engage in fandoms of their favorite pieces of media. In addition to examining the literature for this thesis, topics are presented for further research in this field. One of the topics for further research is the impact of these relationships on clients that are engaging in social media or fan-made websites.
Even though the characters are fictional, the cyberbullying that takes place for many fans that publish their work online is a very real threat. Since many fans are so attached to their parasocial relationship, there are many that bully or “troll” others that have an attachment to another character in the same media. Expressive arts therapists should include an exploration of these relationships in a client’s life into the therapeutic process.
Development of parasocial relationships.
This first subsection is on the development of a parasocial relationship. There is discussion on how these relationships are formed by individuals with their favorite media characters. The relationship can be built through multiple viewings (Kokesh & Sternadori, 2015; Branch et al., 2013), through parasocial interactions (Branch et al., 2013), and by familiarity of the same characters in a new form of the media (Hall, 2017). Audiences create intimate relationships with media characters in a parasocial relationship (Kokesh & Sternadori, 2015). Since the audience can see and learn about the character’s whole story and life, it is almost like having a friend that confides in them and lives alongside them. These characters can evoke different emotions when they feel familiar to the spectators consuming the media (Hall, 2017). The characters can become more familiar if their stories are viewed frequently. People have relationships with things that they encounter in their daily lives (Banks, & Bowman, 2016). Since media consumption is part of the daily lives of many people, it is possible for them to create a relationship with at least one character. Some people have rituals revolving around consuming media, such as watching an episode (or a few) of a favorite show on Netflix to decompress from the work day. Another is catching up on a show when it has a new episode released to avoid spoilers.
The more familiar a person is with a character, the more likely there is going to be a parasocial relationship to the character (Hall, 2017). When this relationship is built over time, the audience might believe that they can predict the behavior of the character (Branch et al., 2013). This could account for people that watch the same piece of media repeatedly and can quote each line as they watch it. Also, when new content is released, the audience will try to guess what the character is going to do next in their story arch. People are more likely to have a stronger connection to a character that is introduced earlier in a piece of media than characters that appear later in the storyline (Hall, 2017). In a study done by Hall (2017), audience members were found more likely to have a strong parasocial relationship to Leia, Han Solo, and Luke Skywalker from the Star Wars franchise, than newer characters such as Rey, Kylo Ren, and Finn. This occurred because there was more of a connection to the characters built over years after the release of the first Star Wars movie in 1977 and subsequent releases of content (movies, merchandise, and other) made since then (Hall, 2017). The parasocial relationships are being built with the newer characters as well, since the movie franchise is still being released and the cycle repeats with the characters that appeared in previous movies versus characters that are introduced in each new movie. Parasocial relationships can build over time, and the more that someone is viewing, playing or reading about a character’s story the more likely that this connection to them will become more intense (Hall, 2017). Repeating the same media gives an opportunity for the relationship to grow and have the audience become more attached to this character (Branch et al. 2013). This could explain why there are many attachments to characters that are from movies and TV shows that people have watched repeatedly in their youth.
Characters evoking or holding emotions. In this subsection, there is discussion on different ways that characters and their stories can cause an emotional reaction while providing other benefits for the audience. Characters can evoke different emotions, while helping with identity development. These characters can also provide a sense of connection if the audience has gone through a similar situation as the characters. Characters offer different types of fulfillment by evoking emotions, an escape from a person’s ordinary live, and providing the need for human connection (Hall, 2017). Tuning into a piece of media that is episodic (TV show, movie franchise, or lengthy video game) can be similar to talking to a friend (Hu, 2016). A character could be there in times of hardship when a person watches the media during a tough time in their lives.
The character could make the audience member laugh, make them cry, and show them that they understand what they are going through. Characters and the audiences that follow these stories could be going through the same emotions, events, or in similar circumstances. Other times, people can experience the characters and their situations vicariously. The aspect of empathy could be an important part of parasocial relationships for the person that has these connections since it is a response to another’s emotions and is related to the intensity of the relationship (Derrick, Gabriel, & Tippin, 2008). Feeling the experiences that the character goes through in their point of view could enhance the parasocial relationship by giving the audience a more intense connection to the character. Also, when characters go through similar events as a person watching them, a more intense connection can be built.
Living vicariously through viewing, playing, or reading the characters’ experiences can help provide a place for safety, connection and resolution of problems (Sullivan, 2008). Sullivan has witnessed, through working with clients that read different comics, that seeing other personas go through similar experiences, such as adolescence, can create a feeling of connection (Sullivan, 2008). Seeing someone go through these experiences will allow for a person to see how to work through certain problems and life events, especially if the person is having shame, guilt or fear of revealing these problems to someone in their lives. For example, the show Big Mouth on Netflix is about puberty and shows the characters having experiences, thoughts, and feelings that children going through their adolescence may be ashamed of telling their parents and/or guardians about.
These characters might also be having similar emotions to the audience member during these experiences. Kokesh and Sternadori (2015) have found through their research of young adult novels and interviews with the readers of this genre of books, that if the media is seen as realistic, then the people consuming it are more likely to develop a parasocial relationship with the characters. When people that are taking in the media felt that they shared experiences with a character, it is more likely that they will find the story more realistic (Kokesh & Sternadori, 2015). Even if the media is not seen as realistic and lives in the fantasy realm, it can help audiences through difficult and scary situations. Characters could serve as a vessel for a person’s fears and serve as a way of attaining mastery of their fears (Sullivan, 2008). For example, the children from the movie It (specifically the 2017 version) have fears that are reflected to them through the character of Pennywise (a shapeshifting creature that wants to eat the children’s bodies and fears) (Lee, Lin, Grahame-Smith, Katzenburg, Muschietti, & Muschietti, 2017).
In addition to helping with conquering fears, a parasocial relationship can be a part of identity formation. Parasocial relationships can have impacts to the viewers’ lives especially when they are part of their development. People can be more likely to attach themselves to objects that have a significant meaning to their identity (Rahman, Liu, & Cheung, 2012). Therefore, if a type of media was important in a time in someone’s life then it is more likely that they will attach themselves to the characters. Many people think fondly of characters that have part of their development in childhood. Shows like Arthur, Blue’s Clues, and Sailor Moon still have a large following because of the nostalgia aspect (C. Linden, personal communication, January 25, 2018). People usually respond to their favorite characters in a similar way that they respond to someone that is close in their lives because the strong parasocial attachment (Derrick et at., 2008).
For example, many people call their favorite characters pet names while they post pictures of them online. Many other people talk about their characters and their events as if they were talking about a friend that they saw recently. Others may gossip and make theories about what is going to happen to their favorite characters. People cry when characters go through hardships or die in their stories. There is a real emotional investment in these characters lives, even though they are fictional.
Cosplay. Cosplay is putting on a costume of a character. For many this is an important ritual that occurs before attending a convention or a Halloween gathering. Some make these costumes from scratch, which can often take months to complete, while others buy these costumes online. There are varying levels of skill in cosplayers, from beginner to expert or (referred in many online communities as) “God-level.” One of the things that is common for all of these fans is that they are able to embody a character that they have a parasocial relationship with, even if it is for a few hours. Rahman et al. (2012) conducted a study of the subculture of cosplay in Hong Kong using interviews and observations of cosplayers at a convention. The researchers participated in cosplay while interviewing members of this subculture, as well as photographed the experience. There were fifteen participants in this study and were interviewed both during causal conversations (twelve participants), and structured in-depth interviews (two participants) (Rahman et al., 2012). All of the participants were cosplayers of various skill levels and had varying opinions of the subject. One of the novice cosplayers was nervous putting on the costume and becoming the character (Rahman et al., 2012). Another participant, who saw herself as a “professional cosplayer,” felt that certain people wearing costumes are not actually cosplayers and that others should put more effort into their cosplay costumes and personas (Rahman et al., 2012).
Rahman et al. stated, “Cosplay enables enthusiasts to imitate the personas of their adored characters and to re-create an imaginative self in reality” (2012, p.321). Cosplayers usually put their photos of their costume on display via social media sites, on Halloween and at conventions, such as the San Diego Comic Con. During this period, a person can embody their favorite characters for a short amount of time, get pictures taken of them and meet other fans of the original medias. Becoming a different person could be a therapeutic experience for some fans because it can give them strength, confidence and an escape from reality while wearing the costume.
How Parasocial Relationships Can be Integrated into Expressive Arts Therapy Parasocial relationships are an integral part of some people’s lives. Through the development of the relationship, the strengthening of it during the creation of fanfiction, fanart and cosplay, and the emotions that are evoked through viewing the character’s story audience members connect to these fictional characters. Derrick et al. (2008) stated, “…although people consciously know that parasocial relationships are not real relationships, in many ways they feel psychologically real and meaningful” (p.262). These relationships impact people’s lives that become clients in therapy. Sometimes these clients do not know of the impact that these relationships have in their lives. It may be important to discuss these relationships in therapy for many reasons. In the following sections, there are examples of how to integrate these relationships into therapy. In the first section, it is discussed how these relationships can be used in the expressive therapies through play therapy, role play, and bibliotherapy. The second section is how clinicians can start this integration process in their own work. Expressive arts interventions. Since parasocial relationships with fictional characters can be part of a client’s life, it is important for the clinician to be able to hold the space to allow discussion of this connection in the therapeutic process.
There are different ways that these relationships could be affecting the client, such as being a vision of an ideal self and a metaphor for the healing process itself. One of the types of characters that are often used as metaphors are superheroes. By using the superhero metaphor in therapy this could help the healing process with many clients (Rubin, 2008). This could include an origin story or backstory, aspects of duality through aliases, the hero’s journey, and the battle between a hero and their villain (Rubin, 2008). Superheroes and their stories are myths that contain origins and transformations and can be utilized in therapy (Rubin, 2007). These superhero stories can be used in metaphors for personal myth making that can facilitate growth, change and self-expression for clients (Rubin, 2007). Superheroes are often transformed through situations that are out of their control and this metaphor can be powerful for clients that have been through traumatic events and/or personal hardships (Rubin, 2007). Superheroes also go through internal struggles, fights with enemies, and conflicting situations with their alter egos (Rubin, 2007). Children often use the metaphor of a superhero to process their feelings of weakness or strength and compare the hero’s qualities with aspects of their ideal selves or others in their lives (Porter, 2007). Using superheroes in play facilitates the exploration of a client’s personal life, develop a sense of self, and helps with self-regulation (Porter, 2007).
Some clients could benefit greatly from using characters in their treatment. People have found symbols, inspiration, and therapeutic release from their own work with these characters through cosplay, fanfiction, and fanart. There is something powerful in dressing up as a character or using them in a metaphor. The characters and the relationships to them can also be great metaphors for clients in the healing process. Using characters can be more of a personal metaphor for someone than others. Plus, they could include a whole story that both the client and the therapist are familiar with. It also provides a safe distance for clients using this metaphor through characters. An example of this can be a client that refers to themselves as the Hulk when they are upset instead of saying that they get into a violent rage. It allows for language for a client that is more comfortable with and that can be later transitioned to more therapeutic language (Meyers, 2017)
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